Literature for Beginners

CONCEPTUALIZING LITERATURE 

Definition of Literature is seen different by different scholars. The views they express are dependent on their level or area of interest. It is good to start by saying that the term “Literature” is a word derived from the Latin word "Littera" which simply means a “letter of the alphabet”. This accounts for the wide conception by lay men of literature as “anything that is written” However, to scholars of literature, the term goes beyond this general understanding of it as every form of written expression.
When viewed from a scholarly perspective in which literature is regarded as a discipline, "Literature" is limited to certain kinds of written expression which possess artistic value or aesthetic appeal. Hence, the French expression for literature is 'Belles Lettres': (beautiful words). This suggests that literature is writing characterized by beauty inherent in imaginative, artistic and expressive qualities. It must however be noted that not all works of literature are written down, hence the term 'oral literature'. Therefore, any meaningful definition of literature must take cognizance of both written and oral literature.

Oral Literature Works in this category include songs, stories and poems not written down; often works that embody folklore in non literate societies. Folklore which consists of a body of traditions, beliefs and customs of a society exhibited in songs, tales, myths or legend is transmitted orally either by recitation or singing from generation to generation. Some definitions of literature provide insight into what constitutes literature. The Oxford English Dictionary defines literature as a writing whose value lies in its beauty of form or emotional effect. Similarly, the Longman Dictionary of contemporary English defines literature as "written works which are of artistic value". Again, The Chambers English Dictionary defines literature as "the art of composition in prose and verse: the whole body of literary composition universally; or in any language or on a given subject". From the above definitions, certain facts emerge: creativity is crucial to literature i.e artistic value; it is the work of a creativity artist i.e the writer or literary artist. Beyond these the scholar, Romanus Egudu in his book Four Modern West African Poets (1977) opines that in literature "... the totality of man's environment human, natural and cosmic is brought into play for the purpose of understanding the human situation and projecting meaningfully into the future". Thus, literature could present real or fictional account of man's experiences in his social and physical environment. When events from real life are used as stories with fictitious names, it is referred to as the act of fictionalization. This is what we find in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart. Taking into consideration these perspectives on literature, the term literature can be defined as a work of art dealing with man in his social and physical environment, created with words either written or oral whose principal value lies not only in its intellectual appeal but also in its aesthetic appeal. Forms of Literature Literature manifests itself in three forms. In literary circles these forms are called genres. The three forms or genres of literature are poetry, prose and drama. Literature Poetry Prose Drama These constitute different modes of presentation. Prose relies on narration, elaborate description of events and characters as we have in the novel; Drama relies on presentation mainly through imitation while poetry relies on the use of figurative language to provoke our imagination. Similarities and Differences between the Genres of Literature Similarities  All three genres of literature have a theme and a subject matter.  All three genres of literature use language in an artistic way.  All three genres of literature usually have a setting. Differences  Prose is written in paragraphs and sometimes in chapters and often does not have metrical arrangement. Characters are usually projected vividly and the plot is quite distinct.  Poetry usually has metrical arrangement and is written in verse. It often has lines and stanzas to pass across its message.  Drama has as its divisions, acts and scenes and often includes directions for actors/actresses on stage. It is written in the form of dialogue. The Functions of Literature a) It entertains: In other words, literature gives us pleasure. For many people, it provides the much needed recreation. One can get so engrossed in a work of literature whether read as a novel or watched on stage as a drama piece or listened to as a poem and forget about human problems. In this way nerves are relaxed and pressures of life are removed. b) Literature educates: It does not only teach us about our world but it also teaches us moral lessons. It does all of these by virtue of the information it contains. This information about people and events is transmitted from one generation to another and from one part of the world to another. A literary work never dies. It remains the same way it was when it was first produced. Hence, generations are educated by it. When literature educates, it broadens our horizon by making us knowledgeable about things and ideas which we hitherto had either limited knowledge of or had no knowledge of. A literary work which illustrates this fact is Chukwuemeka Ike's Sunset at Dawn which provides us with information on the Nigerian civil war of the sixties and early seventies. Similarly, Ola Rotimi's Ovonramwen Nogbaisi is a historical play that enlightens us on the invasion of the ancient Benin kingdom and the consequent deportation of Oba Ovonramwen to Calabar. Furthermore, we learn moral lessons from literary works through the actions and reactions of characters in such literary works. For instance, we learn from the actions and reaction of Okonkwo in Achebe's Things Fall Apart that fear and inordinate ambition could lead one to a disastrous end. c) Literature helps in the development of language skills: It does this by providing the reader, an opportunity to appreciate the use of language in various ways. A reader can also increase his/her vocabulary bank through acquaintance with a literary work. There is the likelihood that those who often read novels will have no difficulty expressing their ideas as they find themselves unconsciously using expressions which they may have earlier come across in literary works. d) Literature helps to document and preserve culture: Most literary works portray the historical era in which they are set. As a result, they show how people live in various times; their mode of worship, burial rites, marriage rites, greetings, dressing etc. When these are reflected in literary works, these works become reference sources for understanding of the cultures of different people by generations of readers. Many of the cultural values of Africans in time past for instance have been either eroded or completely discarded as a result of contact with the Western world by virtue of colonialism. The modern generation of Africans now get to know about these values from literary works in a way that oral transmission will not be able to present. The documentation of these values helps the reader to experience culture within the privacy of the world of the literary work. Ngugi Wa Thiongo's The River Between, Weep Not Child, Petals of Blood; Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart and Ola Rotimi's Ovonramwen Nogbaisi are examples of such documents. e) Literature bridges the gap between fantasy and reality: It does this by means of fictionalization. The world of imagination is made vivid to the reader through literature. For instance, it is in the imagined world of literature that a pumpkin gives birth to a beautiful baby girl. In reality, this can never be. In the world of literature, a story of real life events can be woven around it such that a different world which becomes real within the limits of the literary work is presented to the reader. This is the situation we find in Esther Bali's Tarok Folktales. f) Literature helps us to understand certain complex human problems: Often times, people tend to shy away from discussing complex human problems with other people. For such people, they begin to understand and come to terms with problems which hitherto, they didn't understand when they see characters in literary works experiencing these problems and trying to find solutions to them. In real life situations, it is difficult to understand why a man who is accomplished in every way would lose interest in life and end up badly. However, a reader who is acquainted with Okonkwo, the protagonist of Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart will readily understand that a combination of fear and inordinate ambition can lead to a bad end. ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE Literature has it elements and these are fundamental components which help us to appreciate literature. These elements are: Subject matter Theme Setting Plot Character Characterization Narrative technique Language/Diction It must be noted that these are general components and that each of the three major genres of literature has other basic elements in addition to these highlighted above. 1) Subject Matter The subject matter of a literary work is usually the major issue that the literary work is about. It often summarizes the issues that make up the story. The subject matter is not the same as the theme. While the subject matter summarizes the issues, the theme constitutes the opinion or idea of the writer about the issues. There could be subjects of literary works such as religion circumcision, politics and love but the opinions of the writers about these would present us with the themes. 2) Theme The theme of any literary work is that idea which dominates the work. It is the idea that runs through the work which enables the reader to draw meaningful conclusions about the subject matter. Omonode (1997) states: The theme of a -work is what the author is saying about the subject matter. It is the dominating idea which the work focuses on. Like treatment also runs through the whole work but it is more often implied and not as obvious as subject matter. It should be noted that while a work may contain one subject matter, there could be a multiplicity of themes in a single work but they will all be centred around the subject matter. Sometimes, the theme is mistaken for the subject matter. These are two different concepts. The subject matter is that thing or topic or issue that is discussed while the theme is embedded in what is said about the subject matter. Therefore, the theme consists of the inferences that can be drawn from the subject matter. Setting Generally, setting refers to the place and time that the events of a story take place. If we read a story that tells us of events that took place in a dusty environment without electricity or pipe-borne water, where the only source of water is a small stream, and where the characters know each other and their families; where they are gathered under the moonlight singing and dancing, we can conclude that the story is set in a village and at night. The atmosphere is one of relaxation. Therefore, the aspects of setting are place, time and atmosphere. Setting encompasses all three. According to M.J. Murphy (1972) "the setting of a novel is the background against which the characters live out their lives". He further explains that the setting can be concerned with the place in which the characters live and also the time in which they live and that these tend to have a great effect on the personalities, actions and the way of thinking of the characters. Although setting may not be so important in some novels, the fact remains that the setting of any novel no doubt is the physical, spiritual, or historical background in which the action of a narrative takes place. The setting includes the actual geographical location, its topography and scenery, the culture of the characters, the time or period in history in which the action takes place and the general prevailing social religious, political economic, moral or mental atmosphere. The setting of a novel might be presented to the reader in a variety of ways. Sometimes, the setting is presented through direct utterances of characters that give us an idea of the century and the attitude of people at the time. At other times, the author tells the reader outright the time in which the novel is set; giving details of the time of day, the time in the century, the age of a character and the name of the place. Again, the setting can be deduced from the events that revolve around characters. The aspects of setting are: Place Time Atmosphere Place This refers to the actual geographical location in which the events of the story take place. The writer has a choice of either setting his story in a place that is familiar to most readers or setting it in a place that is unfamiliar to the readers depending on the subject matter and the message he intends of convey. Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart has as its setting, the eastern part of Nigeria generally, and Umuofia specifically. Thus, there can be a general setting or a specific or particular setting in terms of place. There could also be an imaginary place as setting. This kind of place is usually found in unrealistic novels such as Jonathan swift's Gullivers Travels. Lilliput, the land of the little people and Brobdignag, the land of the giants in swift's novel are imaginary places. Time Time denotes period. A writer has the prerogative to situate his story in a definite period or in no time in a strict sense. He could write about past time (about historical events) or about a future time. An example of a novel that is set in the past is Chukwuemeka Ike's Sunset at Dawn. It is a story about the Nigerian civil war of the 60s and early 70s. Sometimes, there may be no specific time in a prose work as in the case of an old fairy tale in which events took place "once upon a time". Other prose works which fall into this category are George Orwell's Animal Farm and William Golding's Lord of the Files. Atmosphere This refers to the totality of the psychological conditions in which the events of the story unfold. In a novel for instance, the general feeling of pessimism could be conveyed to the reader. This is the situation we find in Hardy's Tess of the D'urbervilles with Tess, the major character living her life in the countryside with no hope of escape. Again, the general atmosphere in Chukwumemeka Ike's Sunset at Dawn is one of tension, anxiety and insecurity as the events unfold. 4) Plot Plot refers to the arrangement of events that make up a story line. In other words, plot is the arrangement of events in a literary work (especially of prose and drama) to show a cause and effect relationship. Simply put, plot constitutes the connection between one incident and another. There are two kinds of plot:  The simple plot  The complex plot The simple plot is regarded as conventional. It is a chronological or sequential arrangement of events in the story. The events start from the beginning, through the middle and on to the end. A story that begins with the birth of a child, who grows up and goes through school, gets married, bears children, lives up to a hundred years and finally dies and is buried, is an example of a story with a simple plot. The events are in this order: Exposition, conflict, complication, climax and resolution.  Exposition: This is the initial situation that is presented. It is this initial situation that hints at the on¬coming conflict.  Conflict: Conflict arises out of a struggle between two opposing forces. This captivates the reader's interest and the reader is put in a state of suspense i.e not knowing what would happen next and then trying to anticipate.  Complication: This is when conflict intensifies probably as a result of the major character's inability to readily overcome obstacles or as a result of the concealment of facts which would immediately resolve the conflict. This is a situation when the initial problem is compounded by another one.  Climax: This is when the conflict reaches its peak. This is definitely the crisis stage. Suspense is heightened at this point and events may take a turn for the better or worse.  Resolution: This is the event that signals the end of the story. At this point, all the hidden facts are revealed. It is then easy to guess how the story will end and the story is finally brought to an end. The complex plot is regarded as unconventional. Unlike the simple plot, the complex plot is not arranged chronologically or sequentially. The story can begin at the middle and end where it is supposed to begin. In this kind of plot, the reader is taken back and forth with the use of flashbacks and foreshadowing by the writer. It can be concluded that the common features of the complex plot are flashbacks and foreshadowing.  Flashback: This is when the reader is taken back to events that have earlier occurred before the event being presented. It disrupts the normal progress of a plot.  Foreshadowing: This is a situation in which the event that should come later is presented before. 5) Characters: Characters are the persons that make up the story. The events revolve around the characters. We form our opinions about characters by what they say of themselves, how they comport themselves, what the writer says of them and what other characters say of them. Types of character are; • The protagonist; the main character • The antagonist: usually opposes the main character. • The Deuteragonist; Stands in contrast to the protagonist but next in importance to him. • Flat character; usually associated with a single idea or quality. • Round character: possesses several qualities and associated with various ideas. • Stock character: has a reputation of acting in a usual way. 6 Characterization This simply refers to how a writer makes the reader to understand the characters and the personalities of the people in his story. It is by means of characterization that he conveys to the reader the sort of people they are. He provides the reader with ideas about them. The ways in which the writer does this, are to a great extent similar to how we get to know about persons in real life. For instance, in real life, we get to know about people by their physical appearance; the way they walk, dress, gesture e.t.c. Furthermore, when we are engaged in conversation with a person for a period, we learn something about his other qualities such as his opinions and how he expresses them, his preferences, his accent and generally his social background. Again, in real life, we get to know about a person by what other people like his friends, spouse and acquaintances say about him/her. However, a writer can provide insights about his characters in a way different from how we get to know about people in real life. A writer exhibits this additional privilege by probing into the thoughts of his characters when he uses the eye of god method or the stream of consciousness method. 6) Narrative Technique / Point Of View This simply means the special way a creative writer chooses to tell his story. Of the numerous ways of telling a story, he/she may rely on one or a combination of two or more ways. The writer may choose to tell the story himself in which case, he would be telling the story from the first person point of view. He or she may choose to use a character or person other than himself to tell the story; in which case, the story would be told from the third person point of view. This third person may not actually be a person in the strict sense because he is able to tell the readers what goes on in the minds of the characters. When this happens, then the story is being told from the third person omniscient point of view. M. J. Murphy highlights some methods of telling a story: a) Autobiographical method b) Epistolary method c) Eye-of-God method d) Stream-of-consciousness method e) Personal authorial interruption f) Mixed method (a) Autobiographical Method:

 This is when the story is told in the first person. It is an eye witness account in which the person telling the story either experienced or witnessed or actually heard about the events. There is always the use of the first person pronoun T. This method fosters realism. (b) Epistolary Method: This is when a story is told in form of a letter, i.e. a correspondence between two or more characters. When this method is used, the events are slow-moving. Mariama Ba's So Long a Letter is an example of a story told using this method. (c) Eye-of-God Method: This is when the reader cannot actually identify the person telling the story as the person is neither the author nor any of the characters. This is an anonymous source from which the story is told. This source is all-knowing and the reader is made aware of the motives of characters. (d) Stream-of-Consciousness Method: This is a method which portrays events according to the working of the mind. This method was popularized by James Joyce in Ulysses^ Events are presented not in the sequence of physical event but just as they occur in the mind i.e. just as a lot of things can happen in the mind within a short space- one idea breeds several other ideas in quick succession. (e) Personal Authorial Interruption: This is when the author directly addresses the reader and interferes in the narration. This method is usually a method that comes in to disrupt an initial method or another dominant method, after which the original method continues. This method is used in stages of narration sometimes when the writer wishes to hint at a moral. (f) Mixed Method: This refers to a combination of methods depending on the purpose of the writer at different stages in the novel. A story could begin from the first person point of view and suddenly change to the stream-of-consciousness method and later ends up with the eye-of-God method. 8. Language/Diction Language is the medium of communication and for our purpose, the English language is the medium of expression of the writer's ideas. Diction refers to choice of words. A writer has the prerogative to choose words depending on the ideas or feelings that he wants to express.